- Decorators: Decorators are a way to modify the behavior of a function or class without changing its code. They use the @ symbol and a wrapper function to wrap the original function or class. Here’s an example of using a decorator to log the arguments and return value of a function:
- Generators: Generators are a way to create an iterable sequence of values. Unlike functions, generators can be paused during execution and resumed later. This makes them a memory-efficient alternative to creating lists for large sequences. A generator is created by using the yield keyword in a function instead of return. Here’s an example of creating a generator for the Fibonacci sequence:
- Iterators: Iterators are objects that can be iterated (looped) upon. They implement the __iter__ and __next__ methods, where __iter__ returns the iterator object itself and __next__ returns the next value in the sequence. If there are no more values, __next__ should raise the StopIteration exception. Here’s an example of creating a custom iterator:
- Context Managers: Context managers are used to manage resources, such as files or database connections, in a controlled way. Context managers are implemented using the with statement and the __enter__ and __exit__ methods. For example:
- Lambda Functions: A lambda function is a small, anonymous function that you can use as a shorthand for a function that takes a single argument. For example:
- Metaclasses: A metaclass is a class that defines the behavior of other classes. In Python, you can use metaclasses to customize the behavior of classes, such as changing the way classes are created or modifying the attributes of classes. For example:
- Coroutines: A coroutine is a special type of function that can be paused and resumed during its execution. Coroutines allow you to write asynchronous code that is more readable and maintainable than using traditional threads or callbacks. For example:
- Dynamic Programming: Dynamic programming is a technique for solving problems by breaking them down into smaller subproblems and caching the solutions to those subproblems. Dynamic programming is often used for optimization problems, such as finding the shortest path in a graph or the longest common subsequence of two strings. For example:
- Multiple Inheritance: Multiple inheritance is a feature of object-oriented programming that allows a class to inherit from multiple parent classes. In Python, multiple inheritance is supported through the use of mixins. For example:
